Introduction
The College of St.
Catherine and University of St. Thomas (CSC/UST) School of Social Work recently joined with First Nations Orphan Association
in a grassroots collaborative to form the First Nations Repatriation Institute (FNRI). Not
only does the FNRI fit with the institutional missions of the College of St. Catherine and the University of St. Thomas and
their commitment to the pursuit of truth, diversity and dignity, it further demonstrates the School of Social Work’s
commitment to social justice. The FNRI is an example of social work faculty, students and community partners
working together to promote social justice.
This article examines the oppression faced by First Nations individuals, families and communities, particularly through
the forced removal of their children to foster care and adoption. A unique model of Truth, Healing and
Reconciliation provides the foundation for joining First Nations people and child welfare professionals to begin to heal historical
trauma and grief. The vision and goals of FNRI are further described as one example of
social justice in action.
Oppression of First Nations
People
First Nations people are a small, but growing minority of the total population. There are more
than 558 federally recognized tribes in the United States. In the 2000 census, 4.3 million people, or just over 1.5 percent
of the total United State population, reported they were American Indians and Alaska Natives (Ogunwole, 2006). Of these, 1.4
million are children under the age of 18. This represents about 1.9 percent of all children in the United States, yet 9.5
percent of Native American children were living with neither parent, as compared to 3.7 percent of white children living with
either parent (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2003; Ogunwole, 2006).
Not only are American Indians significantly overrepresented in the child welfare system and among the poorest
people in this country (Weaver, 1999), they also face disproportionately high rates of psychological distress, suicide, alcoholism
and substance abuse, and increased vulnerability to child maltreatment, domestic violence and interpersonal violence (Ledesma,
2007; Weaver, 1999).
Oppression of First
Nations people by the child welfare system is not new. Historically, indigenous families and communities experienced the forced
removal of their children. Factors such as poverty, discrimination and/or misunderstanding of cultural
differences led to the removal of First Nations children at rates 20 times higher than white children (Johnson, 1981). Between
25 percent and 35 percent of all First Nations children were removed from their homes at one time in their lives.
In Minnesota for example, one of every four Native American children under the age of one was adopted, usually by a
non-Native American family (Jones, 1995; Mannes, 1995).
Congress enacted The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) of 1978 in response to this form of cultural
genocide and was designed to give Native nations jurisdiction over child welfare matters and to place First Nation children
with First Nations families when the court deemed out-of-home care necessary. (Weaver & White, 1997). Nevertheless, child
welfare professionals continue to place First Nations children in out-of- home care at a disproportionately higher rate than
their peers, even today.
Historical Trauma and Grief
Historical trauma
is the intergenerational emotional and psychological injury resulting from the genocide of First Nations people. The historical
unresolved grief is the impaired mourning that comes from this generational trauma (Yellow Horse Brave Heart, 2001). United
States social policies included specific and deliberate attempts to physically and culturally destroy indigenous people. This
historical trauma has never healed and has resulted in a lack of trust of non-Native social workers. (Edwards & Edwards
1998, Weaver & White 1997, S. L. Cross et al., 2007).
Social work educators need to teach the persistent
oppression that led to the historical trauma so they can truly understand the individual and collective grief of a people. It
is only then that non-Native social workers can acknowledge the historical trauma and grief experienced by First Nations people
and establish the trust necessary to begin to work effectively (Weaver
& White, 1997; White Hawk & Brommel, 2007; Yellow Horse Brave Heart, 2001).
Historical trauma and grief are part of the every day lives of a people
who have experienced the systematic theft of their land, history, language, children and culture. Much healing is needed before
social workers can rebuild trust, hope and community between themselves and First Nations people (Weaver & White, 1997).
Truth, Healing and Reconciliation
Reconciliation is
increasingly seen as necessary for improved social work practice with First Nations people. Indeed, a reconciliation
movement has begun among First Nations people and the child welfare profession (T. Cross & Blackstock, 2005; White Hawk
& Brommel, 2005).
Generally,
reconciliation can be understood to involve the “restoration of relationships.” This can be the relationships
people have to themselves, their families, the indigenous community, the wider non-Native society and even the academy (Lafreniere,
Diallo, Dubie, & Henry, 2007). Sutherland (2004) maintains that “the heart of reconciliation is a parallel process
of personal and political transformation from systems of domination to relationships of mutuality” (p. 1).
Basic principles
of reconciliation in child welfare include respect, understanding, inclusion and truth. The process involves a confirmation
of and learning from historical experiences and moving toward new relationships that help individuals thrive. The ultimate
goal is unity in child welfare in support of the well-being of children (T. Cross & Blackstock, 2005).
Different models of reconciliation have emerged
as a way to regain trust and build community among First Nations and child welfare. One example was a North American forum
of indigenous and non-indigenous child welfare leaders held in 2005 (Blackstock et al., 2006).
Sandra White Hawk, Director, First Nations
Orphan Association (FNOA) began to develop a model of reconciliation in 2002. A Lakota elder admonished
her, “Do not talk about truth and reconciliation without healing. Healing can only happen after our
stories are told. Reconciliation cannot happen until healing has taken place.”
The model of Truth, Healing and Reconciliation developed by White Hawk and FNOA differs from other models in that it
occurs more at the micro level, between individuals, rather than at the macro level or between institutions (S. C. Robin,
personal communication, March 27, 2008; White Hawk & Brommel, 2008). In a community forum, individuals
who have experienced foster care or adoption are brought together with social workers and other child welfare professionals
to tell their stories and express their pain. The role of the professional is simply to listen, to hear
the truth. An honor song and healing ceremony begin the healing process for all participants.
White Hawk and FNOA have facilitated 12 community forums involving nearly 600 people (White Hawk & Brommel, 2008).
Sandra White Hawk and Sheila Brommel
met in 2004 and worked together to bring Truth, Healing and Reconciliation to First Nations individuals, families and communities,
strengthening them to provide permanency for children currently waiting in the foster care system. Terry Cross, Executive
Director, National Indian Child Welfare Association explained the rationale for this innovative partnership:
…effective recruitment of
American Indian families begins with community
healing, truth and reconciliation. Currently,
the available models for foster
and adoptive family recruitment and support are mainstream American models.
American Indian communities and families often do not relate to these models
and may even distrust them.
Unfortunately, Indian families were subjected to
misuse and abuse of foster care and adoption, which were used as tools to
destroy
Indian
culture. Nearly every Indian family alive today has some negative history
with foster care and adoption.
Many have experienced trauma directly or intergenerationally.
Most still carry unresolved
trauma. Ceremonial healing events
like those provided by the First Nations Orphan Association begin to heal
the hurts
that
prevent Indian families from becoming resource families for Indian children in
need. They are an essential element
of sustainable recruitment and retention. (personal communication, July 2004).
This effort to use Truth, Healing and Reconciliation as a method to
recruit and support First Nation families to provide permanency to waiting children was funded in part by an Adoption Opportunities
demonstration grant from the Children’s Bureau. Over the past four years, White Hawk and Brommel
have built a foundation of trust and mutuality, which is crucial for continued work. Their relationship also demonstrates
how the process of Truth, Healing and Reconciliation can unite a First Nation adoptee hurt by the child welfare system with
a social worker who represents the cause of significant pain and trauma. When Brommel joined the faculty
of the CSC/UST School of Social Work, their shared vision of social justice for First Nations fostered and adopted individuals,
their families and communities grew to the next level and the First Nations Repatriation Institute was launched.
First Nations Repatriation Institute
Repatriation (from
Late Latin repatriatre – to go home again; to restore or return to the country of origin, allegiance or citizenship).
The purpose of First
Nations Repatriation Institute (FNRI) is to create a resource for First Nations people affected by foster care or adoption
and support them in returning home, reconnecting, and reclaiming their identity. FNRI serves as a resource
to enhance the knowledge and skills of social work students and practitioners who serve First Nations people.
FNRI promotes Truth,
Healing and Reconciliation as a way to address historical trauma and disenfranchised grief caused by the forced removal of
indigenous children to adoption or foster care. We support family/cultural reunification and community
healing. Our mission is to provide technical assistance, education, research and advocacy on the process
of Truth, Healing and Reconciliation for the healing and return home of First Nations people affected by adoption and foster
care.
FNRI
began its work in August 2007 by starting to build a clearinghouse and repository of local and national psychosocial, spiritual
and legal resources for First Nations individuals, families, communities and the practitioners who serve them.
FNRI collaborates with other organizations to promote the process of Truth, Healing and Reconciliation. For example,
in October 2007, The White Earth Nation became the first tribe in Minnesota and possibly the United States, to formally welcome
home its’ fostered and adopted members. The tribe received such an overwhelmingly positive response;
it plans to continue these efforts with its own Repatriation Project in conjunction with FNRI. FNRI will
evaluate the impact of repatriation for tribal members who have been involved in the child welfare system.
In addition, FNRI is developing
a research agenda and seeking funding to support faculty/student research with First Nations partners. Our
general goal is to explore the process of Truth, Healing and Reconciliation so that social workers may increase their cultural
understanding of and be better prepared to work with First Nations individuals, families and communities. This
model of reconciliation may also be useful to others who have experienced separation from their culture or historical trauma
and grief.
FNRI will not only focus on providing technical assistance and research,
it will also engage in advocacy and support services. Most recently, FNRI joined with the University of
St. Thomas Interprofessional Center for Counseling and Legal Services (IPC) to provide more direct support services.
Case management by bachelor- and graduate-level students and counseling by graduate social work students will be offered
for search and reunification services.
FNRI will also advocate for a “Repatriation Act” which would
grant full access to adoption records to 1) facilitate tribal enrollment, 2) ensure support and healing in the reunification
process, 3) build trust between social workers and First Nation individuals, families and communities; and 4) ultimately bring
relatives home.
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